Abstract In the early twentieth century, linguistics became closely associated with literary studies, serving as a bridge between the writer and the ideas embedded within the text. One of the most significant outcomes of this interaction is statistical stylistics, which focuses on the detailed analysis of literary texts through statistical tools and mathematical formulas. Semantic field theory, on the other hand, concerns groups of words that share a common conceptual relationship and fall under a comprehensive semantic category encompassing related sub-meanings. Its importance lies in examining the relationships among lexical items within the same field and analyzing their meanings and interconnections in order to understand systems of perception, customs, traditions, and social relations in both their material and spiritual dimensions.
Within this framework, the present study selects two major poets of the contemporary vertical poem in the Arab world: Ahmed Bakhit from Egypt and Aref Al-Saadi from Iraq. A corpus of fifty-five verses was chosen from the most recent poetic works of each poet. These samples were analyzed using Yule’s index within the framework of statistical stylistics to determine lexical richness and patterns of word-frequency distribution. The resulting statistical data were then applied to semantic field theory in order to extract dominant semantic domains in each poetic sample and to examine the distribution of vocabulary frequency in relation to external cultural, social, and ideological factors.
The study concludes that the level of lexical richness in Ahmed Bakhit’s poetry is higher than that found in Aref Al-Saadi’s poetry. Both poets employ a variety of semantic fields, repeating them in accordance with their intellectual orientations and poetic visions. Bakhit tends to evoke the glories of Arab civilization before and after Islam while seeking to escape what he describes as a shameful present, which he metaphorically labels as “hell.” Consequently, semantic fields related to place, historical figures, despair, and numbers are recurrent in his poetry. In contrast, Al-Saadi focuses on depicting the lived reality of Iraq and the suffering and aspirations of its people. His poetry abounds in expressions related to the Iraqi environment, collective Iraqi identity, and body-related vocabulary that functions as a means of conveying his message.
 
Keywords: Statistical stylistics; semantic fields; contemporary vertical poem; Ahmed Bakhit; Aref Al-Saadi
 
Extended Summary

Introduction

This study examines the phenomenon of semantic fields in contemporary Arabic poetry through the combined application of linguistic theory and statistical stylistics. A semantic field refers to a group of words unified by a shared conceptual framework and organized under a broader term that governs related sub-meanings. In poetic discourse, semantic fields serve as a crucial analytical tool for understanding how poets encode experience, ideology, and emotion through lexical choices. Investigating these patterns provides insight into the poet’s worldview and the cultural context shaping poetic imagination.
The research focuses on two prominent figures in modern Arabic poetry: Ahmed Bakhit from Egypt and Aref Al-Saadi from Iraq. Both poets have gained wide recognition through Arab and international literary awards and festivals. Their poetry is characterized by symbolic density, cultural depth, and rhythmic innovation, making it particularly suitable for comparative stylistic analysis.
By integrating computational techniques with linguistic theory, this study aims to identify how each poet’s lexical choices and thematic organization reflect personal, historical, and geographical contexts. It further explores how vocabulary frequency, diversity, and repetition reveal underlying semantic orientations. Ultimately, the study seeks to propose an analytical model capable of quantifying poetic meaning without compromising its aesthetic value, thereby contributing to the interdisciplinary field linking linguistic science and literary criticism.
 

Materials and Methods

To ensure a balanced comparison, fifty-five verses were selected from the most recent poetic works of both Ahmed Bakhit and Aref Al-Saadi. Each verse was chosen for its representativeness of the poet’s mature stylistic and thematic tendencies. The study employed Yule’s statistical stylistic index, a quantitative tool designed to measure lexical richness, word dispersion, and repetition ratios.
Following the calculation of statistical values, semantic field theory was applied to classify the vocabulary of each poem into conceptual categories such as place, time, nature, emotions, characters, and linguistic connectives. This combined statistical-semantic approach allowed for both numerical precision and interpretive depth.
The analytical process proceeded through several stages. First, lexical items were extracted and classified based on semantic proximity. Second, their frequencies were calculated to identify dominant semantic domains. Third, statistical measures were used to assess word concentration and recurrence within each domain. Finally, correlations were drawn between lexical density and external cultural factors, including geography and ideology.
By integrating computational stylistics with close textual analysis, this methodology bridges traditional literary interpretation and data-driven linguistic analysis, enabling a more objective understanding of poetic style while preserving sensitivity to cultural and emotional nuances.
 

Research Findings

The comparative analysis revealed clear lexical and semantic distinctions between the two poets. In Ahmed Bakhit’s sample, the lexical richness index reached 53.87, indicating a high degree of verbal diversity accompanied by moderate repetition. In contrast, Aref Al-Saadi’s poetry recorded a value of 69.67, reflecting a more limited lexical range but stronger thematic cohesion within specific semantic fields.
In Bakhit’s poetry, the most prominent semantic fields included place (44 occurrences), time (22), characters (18), fear and despair (25), nature (22), animals (7), writing and literature (12), and connectives (52). These distributions reflect his engagement with Arab history and civilization, evoking ancient cultural centers such as Babylon, Andalusia, and Baghdad, often juxtaposed with contemporary decline. The recurrence of these fields demonstrates a poetic consciousness rooted in nostalgia and collective cultural memory.
By contrast, Al-Saadi’s poetry is dominated by semantic fields related to visual imagery (39), nature (48), place (15), time (35), body parts (22), characters (11), environmental vocabulary (15), and connectives (88). The extensive use of connectives contributes to syntactic cohesion and thematic continuity, linking nearly every verse to the central theme of Iraq’s suffering and resilience. While Bakhit’s imagination transcends geographical boundaries, Al-Saadi’s poetry remains firmly anchored in the local Iraqi context, reflecting the collective struggle of his homeland.
 

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings demonstrate that both poets employ lexical repetition, semantic selection, and structural organization as deliberate stylistic strategies reflecting distinct ideological orientations. Ahmed Bakhit articulates a transnational poetic vision aimed at reviving the grandeur of Arab civilization and transcending the disillusionment of the present. His frequent references to historical figures and lost civilizations function as symbols of continuity, pride, and cultural memory. Consequently, the semantic field of place in his poetry operates not merely as a spatial marker but as an intellectual metaphor for unity and renewal.
In contrast, Aref Al-Saadi grounds his poetic discourse in the immediate social and emotional reality of Iraq. His emphasis on nature, body-related vocabulary, and connective structures conveys endurance and interconnectedness, mirroring the persistence of suffering and hope within Iraqi society. The repetition of conjunctions in particular reinforces rhythmic cohesion and emotional continuity.
Methodologically, the integration of statistical stylistics with semantic field analysis proves effective in quantifying subtle poetic phenomena and enabling an objective evaluation of artistic style. The study concludes that this combined approach offers a replicable framework for future research in Arabic literary studies, bridging qualitative interpretation and empirical analysis. In doing so, it advances the scientific study of poetic language and cultural identity in the contemporary Arab world.

Abstract Content is regarded as the driving force behind linguistic formation and stylistic impact, carrying the depth and distinctive characteristics of a literary work. Form, however, is not merely a superficial manifestation of textual structure; rather, it conveys multiple connotations, expressive possibilities, and unique features of its own. This study explores poetic language and style through an examination of the dynamic interaction between form and content, which forms the basis of the title “Poetic Themes and Their Impact on the Linguistic Formation of Lutfi Zaghloul’s Poetry.”
Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, the study arrives at several key findings. Most notably, the diversity of themes in Lutfi Zaghloul’s poetry reflects the suffering of the Palestinian people and their broader human experience, with the homeland constituting one of the central axes of his poetic vision. Zaghloul articulates his deep attachment to his homeland by depicting the pain caused by occupation and continuous hardship, rendering his poems powerful expressions of loss and heartbreak. In addition, he addresses themes of love and womanhood, through which he expresses passion, desire, and the significance of emotional communication in human relationships. This enhances the profound bond between poet and reader and embodies the poet’s comprehensive human experience.
Social and cultural concerns are likewise embedded in Zaghloul’s poetic language, as he draws upon religious and historical heritage to construct rich and evocative poetic imagery. By invoking historical and religious symbols, Zaghloul deepens the expressive power of his poems and conveys the suffering and aspirations of the Palestinian people, allowing his poetry to become a vessel of identity and belonging. This dynamism is most clearly reflected in his style, which combines classical and modern techniques, demonstrating a strong interaction between form and content while emphasizing emotional depth and enriching the reader’s engagement with the profound meanings of his poetry.
Keywords: Lutfi Zaghloul; form; content; style; structure
 

Introduction

Lutfi Abd al-Latif Saeed Zaghloul (1938–2021) was a Palestinian poet and writer whose works vividly express the suffering of his people and their aspirations for freedom and justice. His poetry embodies a literary vision that addresses both national and universal human concerns. This study examines poetic language and style through a close analysis of the interaction between form and content.
Content functions as the guiding and motivating force behind linguistic formation and stylistic effect, carrying the depth and distinctive qualities of the literary work. Form, by contrast, is not merely a superficial reinforcement of textual structure; rather, it encompasses a wide range of meanings, expressions, and stylistic particularities. Linguistic studies emphasize the communicative function of language, which manifests through its various forms and transformations. At times, language is praised for its effectiveness, precision, and persuasive power; at other times, it is criticized for its inability to achieve these aims. Such evaluations depend on multiple factors, including the speaker’s circumstances, the listener’s condition, and the specific context in which the linguistic message is produced.
The language of a literary work—whether poetic or prose—is inseparable from the work itself and constitutes one of its fundamental components. Observing the evolution of Arabic literary language across historical periods reveals significant transformations that have enriched its structure and introduced new expressive dimensions. Poetic language has moved from confined expressive realms to broader and more diverse horizons, intertwining with the spirit of the age and the characteristics of the surrounding environment. These elements merge with the poet’s linguistic tools during the creative process, collectively shaping the poem as a work of art that emerges from the poet’s consciousness and manifests within the space of imagination and perception.
Poetic vision arises from a unique lived experience, fully internalized by the poetic self in all its details. Each poet’s vision is distinguished by a particular quality conveyed through language that reflects individual identity. The poet does not impose rigid control over form; rather, the poem develops organically according to the logical progression and dramatic coherence of its content. Even when poets address the same subject, each imbues it with a distinctive tone shaped by personal experience. While ideas may be shared, their artistic embodiment renders them unique to each author, forming an individual aesthetic system.
Content plays a primary role in shaping form, alongside personal factors related to the poet’s individuality and their engagement with the poetic conventions of their time. Here, “content” refers to the combination of subject matter and the emotional state surrounding it. Semantic and emotional variations are evident when comparing different poetic works. This raises a fundamental question: how does poetic language itself differ in formulation, structure, and harmony?
 

Research Methods and Objectives

This study adopts a descriptive-analytical method and arrives at several significant conclusions. Most notably, Lutfi Zaghloul’s poetry presents a wide range of themes that reflect the suffering of the Palestinian people and their shared human experience, with the homeland serving as a central pillar of his poetic production. Zaghloul conveys his profound love for his country by portraying the pain caused by occupation and continuous adversity, transforming his poems into expressions of loss and fragmentation.
In addition, his poetry addresses themes of love and womanhood, through which he articulates passion, desire, and the importance of emotional connection in human relationships. This deepens the bond between poet and reader and reflects the poet’s comprehensive human experience. Social and cultural themes are also embedded in Zaghloul’s poetic language, as he draws upon religious and historical heritage to create rich and evocative imagery. Through the use of historical and religious symbols, he intensifies the emotional impact of his poems and conveys the suffering and aspirations of the Palestinian people, allowing his poetry to embody identity and belonging.
This dynamic is most evident in his stylistic approach, which combines classical and modern techniques, demonstrating a strong interaction between form and content. The emotional depth of his poetry enhances the reader’s experience and draws attention to the profound meanings embedded within his poetic texts.
 

Research Findings and Discussion

The poet successfully employs religious and historical heritage in its various dimensions to serve multiple purposes, including inspiring enthusiasm, exposing the fragility of contemporary Arab and Islamic reality, and highlighting the spirit of rebellion and resistance, as well as the Palestinian people’s refusal to submit to Zionist colonialism. While clearly influenced by certain classical poets, Zaghloul is not merely an imitator; rather, he demonstrates innovation by integrating personal experience into inherited imagery, allowing him to convey his own emotions and ideas with originality.
His poetic imagery is marked by richness, diversity, and suggestiveness, enabling readers to appreciate its aesthetic value. These images transcend decorative function to become dynamic artistic constructions. Zaghloul succeeds in creating imagery that is both detailed and imaginative, revitalizing reality and extending it into the realm of creative imagination. Among the most prominent features of his poetry are personification, embodiment, and concretization, which he employs to shape and enrich his poetic images. Through these techniques, his poetry becomes a gallery of artistic expression that unites diverse rhetorical and poetic devices.
Moreover, Zaghloul effectively conveys his thoughts and emotions through sensory imagery, with particular emphasis on visual and auditory elements. By blending stillness and movement according to contextual demands, he creates a vivid poetic experience that enables readers to grasp ideas and emotions in a comprehensive and engaging manner. This fusion of imagery infuses his poetry with vitality and emotional intensity, enhancing its expressive and aesthetic impact.

Abstract Semiotic criticism pays particular attention to exploring the deep dimensions of literary texts across their multiple levels—icon, index, and symbol. This study adopts a semiotic approach to the poem “Stop Until We Cry” by the Palestinian poet Izz al-Din Manasrah, viewing it as a poetic text that draws on pre-Islamic literary heritage, particularly the openings of the Mu‘allaqat, while simultaneously weaving a contemporary discourse that reflects the tragedy of the Nakba and the experience of Palestinian exile.
The research is grounded in a critical reading that seeks to uncover the poem’s semiotic structure and to highlight its interaction with memory, heritage, and national experience. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the study identifies the semiotic network underlying the poem, in which ruins symbolize destruction and absence, spatial references signify exile and alienation, and religious and historical symbols function as cultural markers that affirm identity and belonging.
By tracing and analyzing semiotic units in accordance with Peircean semiotics—specifically the triad of representamen, object, and interpretant—the poem is shown to operate within an endless process of semiosis, whereby signs move from a limited visual or concrete dimension to an expansive symbolic space open to multiple interpretations. This transformation enables heritage to function as a source of resistance, positioning the poetic text as a mirror of Palestinian collective memory and its aspiration for survival and freedom.
The adopted methodology combines precision in describing poetic signs with depth in interpreting them, offering an effective framework for highlighting Izz al-Din Manasrah’s distinctive poetic experience and demonstrating the capacity of Peircean semiotics to enrich contemporary Arab literary criticism by revealing the latent layers of literary discourse.
 
Keywords: Semiotics; Peirce; Izz al-Din Manasrah; Stop Until We Cry; poetic sign
 

Introduction

Semiotic research is regarded as one of the major shifts in modern literary criticism. This approach has moved beyond the traditional boundaries of textual analysis toward broader domains concerned with signs, meaning, and signification at their multiple levels. Among the most influential theorists of semiotics is the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce, who laid the foundations for an integrated model of the relationship between the sign, its object, and its interpretant. This model operates within a rigorous framework that brings together logic, philosophy, and linguistics, granting literary texts expansive hermeneutic possibilities that reveal both their surface and underlying dimensions. Accordingly, applying this perspective to the reading of modern Arabic poetry opens new horizons for understanding poetic discourse in its interaction with heritage, reality, and history.
The poet Izz al-Din al-Manasrah (1946–2021) stands as one of the most prominent Palestinian poetic voices to have combined profound aesthetic sensitivity with a resistant national vision. He succeeded in transforming his personal experience of exile into a mirror reflecting the tragedy of the Palestinian collective, blending traditional authenticity with openness to modernity. His poem “Qifā Nabki” represents a striking example of the intersection between pre-Islamic (Jahili) references and contemporary context. By evoking the openings of the Mu‘allaqat, the poet draws upon them to construct a poetic discourse centered on ruins, alienation, and memory, forming an intertwined image that reflects the tragedy of the Palestinian Nakba and elevates it to both a human and national symbol.
The significance of this research lies in the fact that previous studies of al-Manasrah’s poetry have largely focused on historical, political, or general aesthetic dimensions, without giving sufficient attention to reading his texts through the lens of Peircean semiotics. Examining the specific poem “Qifā Nabki” through Peirce’s theoretical framework allows for uncovering its underlying semiotic structure and tracing the movement of the sign from its iconic level to its indexical and symbolic dimensions. This approach enables a deeper understanding of the poem’s specificity and contributes an important cognitive dimension to contemporary Arabic literary criticism.
 

Materials and Methods

This research adopts a descriptive-analytical method based on describing the components of the text, identifying its semiotic units, and then analyzing and interpreting them in light of Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotic theory. This methodology allows for a balance between methodological precision in examining textual structures and interpretive depth in uncovering symbolic and cultural meanings, thereby achieving integration between objective description and critical analysis.
The primary materials of the study consist of the poem “Qifā Nabki” by Izz al-Din al-Manasrah as the main case study, and Peirce’s semiotic theory as the theoretical framework. The analysis focuses on Peirce’s fundamental triad: the representamen (the sign vehicle), the object (that which the sign refers to), and the interpretant (the meaning generated in the mind of the recipient).
The research is guided by several central questions, most notably:

How does Peirce’s triad (representamen, object, interpretant) manifest in the poem “Qifā Nabki”?
How do textual signs transform from sensory resemblance (icon) to realistic indices and subsequently to culturally charged symbols with a resistant dimension?
What roles do place, time, and historical and religious symbols play in shaping the poem’s semiotic structure?

The poem is approached through major semantic themes supported by textual evidence, with particular attention to the three levels of signs: iconic (based on resemblance), indexical (based on causality), and symbolic (based on convention).
 

Research Findings

A Peircean semiotic analysis of “Qifā Nabki” reveals an open and multi-layered semiotic space that integrates sensory, psychological, historical, and symbolic dimensions into a cohesive structure. Within the theme of place and ruins, visual and auditory icons—such as ruins, wind, and the calls of owls—function as sensory entry points that enable the reader to grasp psychological desolation and civilizational absence. These elements operate as representamens that point to the object of historical and political alienation, generating an interpretant rooted in shared cultural consciousness.
In the context of exile and estrangement, the poem’s signs function primarily as semiotic indices, establishing direct links to socio-political reality. Images of lost sovereignty, aimless wandering, and expressions of despair lend these signs a tangible existential weight, transforming the text into both an emotional document and a testimony to collective and individual exile.
Within the theme of wine and companionship, the dynamic interplay between icon and symbol becomes particularly significant. Sensory images such as the tavern, wine, and revelry gradually evolve into symbols of escape, defeat, and cultural-political alienation. This progression exemplifies Peirce’s concept of semiosis, whereby signs shift from sensory resemblance to culturally conventional symbolic meaning. Through this layered semiotic process, the poem constructs a rich and enduring discourse on memory and loss that remains open to multiple interpretations.
 

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings of the study demonstrate that the poem “Qifā Nabki” forms an integrated network of signs in which icons provide sensory, visual, and auditory dimensions; indices anchor the text in its realistic and political context; and symbols open expansive cultural horizons extending into history and myth.
The analysis reveals how signs within the poem evolve from sensory imitation (icon) to realistic indices and ultimately to culturally charged symbols imbued with a resistant dimension. This evolution confirms the capacity of modern Arabic poetry to assimilate contemporary critical approaches and to contribute meaningfully to their development. It also underscores the poet’s ability to transform personal exile into a reflection of collective Palestinian tragedy.
The study affirms the uniqueness of al-Manasrah’s poetic experience in shaping the poetic sign as a vessel for memory and resistance, and demonstrates how infinite semiosis expands the text’s interpretive horizons. Moreover, it shows that employing a Peircean semiotic framework enables a deeper engagement with poetic texts by approaching signs as dynamic entities that interact with readers on multiple levels.
Applying Peirce’s semiotic theory to modern Arabic poetry thus reveals its underlying semiotic structures and opens new critical perspectives for understanding the complex interplay between poetry, heritage, and lived reality.

Abstract Religion, as a profound and enduring dimension of human existence, significantly shapes cultural and social identity, particularly within Arab Muslim societies. Its influence extends to the arts and literature, where religious values and principles impact societal visions. This research critically analyzes the religious dimensions reflected in Jalal Barjas’s novel, Dafater al-Warraq, a recipient of the Arabic Booker Prize. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach informed by cultural criticism, the study examines the novel’s engagement with religious themes. Given the prominence of Arabic Booker Prize winners and their global reach, this study investigates the extent to which Barjas highlights religious aspects and whether these are effectively utilized or overshadowed by themes such as colonialism and cultural exploitation.
 
The reflections of religion in the novel are categorized into four primary axes: ideological, social, political, and psychological, each supported by analytical examples. The study concludes that the reflections of religion are negative, encompassing struggles against globalization, the marginalization of characters, the exploitation of religion by officials, and identity turmoil. Consequently, the research finds that the portrayal of religion in the novel is negative and subdued, and does not represent the author’s primary concern in this work.
 
Keywords: Religion, Dafater al-Warraq, Cultural Criticism, Arabic Booker Prize.
 
Extended Summary
 
1. Introduction
Religion constitutes one of the fundamental pillars in constructing Arab identity, deeply permeating various aspects of cultural, social, and political life in contemporary societies. Understanding the complex dynamics governing this reality is impossible without a meticulous examination of its manifestations and profound impacts as reflected in literary domains. In this context, the contemporary Arabic novel emerges as a critical mirror capable of capturing subtle details and latent contradictions, especially as this narrative structure has developed to address the changes and conflicts impacting social and intellectual frameworks.
 
Global literary awards, such as the Arabic Booker Prize, have further enhanced the novel’s stature and increased worldwide critical attention, opening a wider avenue for analyzing the religious discourses embedded within these works. Do these widely circulated works play a role in reviving discussions around prevailing religious concepts or in reshaping them within the collective consciousness? This question necessitates an in-depth critical analysis.
 
This paper specifically aims to analyze the reflections of religion in Jalal Barjas’s novel, The Scribe’s Notebooks (Dafatir al-Warrāq), by adopting the methodology of Cultural Criticism. This analytical approach moves beyond a superficial reading of the text, seeking to uncover the intricate relationships between literature, power, and underlying ideological values. It enables us to demonstrate how the narrative reflects current challenges in relation to religious references.
 
2. Materials & Methods
This study is founded upon the Descriptive-Analytical Method, employing Cultural Criticism as the primary analytical basis for interpreting contemporary texts. Operationally, the goal is to apply this method to the novel Dafater Al-Waraq to extract and examine how religion is reflected in the narrative structure, monitoring its impact on the text’s latent meanings and values. This approach offers a critical framework to uncover embedded power dynamics.
 
The analysis is organized through the lens of Cultural Criticism across four core axes: Religion and Ideology, Society, Politics, and Psyche. These axes ensure full coverage of the interaction between religious content and narrative structure, with each axis representing a necessary analytical angle to reveal the narrative’s sophisticated utilization of religious discourse. The research ultimately seeks to map the ideological terrain presented by the author.
 
3. Research Findings
Textual analysis revealed that the influences of religion manifest across four main domains of the study, each of which is elaborated in this section.
At the ideological level, a dialectical relationship emerges between cultural criticism and globalization. Globalization opens new horizons for critical analysis, while critics regard it as a threat to civilizational diversity and a force that imposes a homogenization of values. In this context, the intersection of religion and feminism continues to expose structural challenges faced by women against patriarchal hegemony—challenges that social movements strive to overcome.
Within the social domain, the findings indicate that social isolation and the marginalization of the poor coincide with their deprivation from active participation in core societal structures.
From a political perspective, religion in modern history is often not a governing force in itself but rather an instrument utilized by politics to secure legitimacy. Such exploitation arises when political practices deviate from the transcendent moral principles of religion.
Finally, in the psychological domain, the weakening of society’s value foundations leads to a crisis of lost religious identity, as religion plays a fundamental role in shaping individual self-awareness. The absence of such a foundation leaves a vital human need unanswered—one that calls for interdisciplinary analysis.
 
4. Discussion of Results & Conclusion
The analyses revealed a weak and often critical presence of religion in the work. At the ideological level, religion is positioned in confrontation with two modern forces: globalization and feminism. The main character outwardly aligns with certain aspects of globalization while fully harmonizing with feminism, often portraying religion as an obstacle to progress.
In the social dimension, the distancing from religion is linked to severe consequences such as isolation, depression, and criminal acts; yet the author focuses solely on the social aspects of these crises rather than offering religious solutions. From a political perspective, religion is depicted as a tool used by corrupt officials to gain legitimacy in a hypocritical society, thereby painting a bleak picture of religion’s role. Finally, the prominent psychological impact centers on the disorder and fragmentation of individual identity; an effort to restore this identity in the novel proves futile due to the lack of a strong religious foundation. These findings clearly affirm the initial hypothesis regarding the marginal presence of religion in this literary work.

Abstract The sermons of Imam Hassan (AS) are important heritage texts that reflect the intellectual and political struggles of early Islam. These sermons, due to their multiple semantic phenomena, have played a role in shaping an influential reformative discourse. The main research problem is to investigate how Imam Hassan (AS) employed semantic oppositions in his sermons to explain doctrinal and moral concepts and to criticize political and social reality. The importance of this study lies in its attempt to go beyond traditional rhetorical readings and approach the text using modern semantic tools. This research adopts a descriptive-analytical method, relying on Frank Palmer's classification of semantic oppositions and the implied opposition first proposed by Koorosh Safavi, and is applied to 220 opposing word pairs in 32 sermons attributed to Imam Hassan (AS), compiled in the book "Kunuz al-Hikam wa Funun al-Kalim," . Imam Hassan (AS) used six types of opposition: gradable, complementary, binary, directional, lexical, and implied. Complementary opposition was the most frequent at (%28), and binary opposition was the least frequent at (%5). These oppositions were not merely rhetorical embellishments but served multiple functions: cognitive (explaining religious concepts), educational (reinforcing moral values), and socio-political (criticizing deviations and revealing the contrast between truth and falsehood). The results indicate that semantic opposition was a central tool in the discourse structure of Imam Hassan (AS) and, in complex historical circumstances, contributed significantly to enhancing its rhetorical and semantic effect.
 
 Keywords: Semantics; Semantic Opposition; Binary Oppositions; Sermons
 of Imam Hassan (AS); Frank Palmer.
 
Extended Summary
1.Introduction
 Semantic opposition, a cornerstone of modern semantics, extends beyond traditional antonymy to reveal profound layers within discourse. Historically embedded in classical rhetoric as "antonymy," it now includes diverse patterns such as gradable, complementary, binary, directional, lexical, and implied oppositions. This study analyzes these patterns in the sermons of Imam Hassan (AS), sourced from Kunuz al-Hikam wa Funun al-Kalim, employing a descriptive-analytical approach. By examining 32 sermons, the research explores how semantic oppositions enhance stylistic elegance and rhetorical impact, reflecting Imam Hassan's ideological and ethical vision. The analysis underscores the oppositions' role in conveying religious and social concepts within the fraught historical context of his era. Imam Hassan's use of oppositions countered intellectual and political deviations, serving as a potent rhetorical tool. This study addresses a gap in contemporary linguistic research by applying a systematic classification, based on Palmer and Safavi’s frameworks, to uncover the structural and communicative depth of Imam Hassan’s discourse, contributing to a deeper understanding of its semantic and stylistic intricacies.
 

Materials and Methods

 This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology to investigate semantic oppositions in 32 sermons of Imam Hassan (AS), extracted from Kunuz al-Hikam wa Funun al-Kalim, chosen for its comprehensive and credible compilation. The classification of oppositions follows Palmer’s concepts model, supplemented by Koroush Safavi’s, encompassing gradable, complementary, binary, directional, lexical, and implied oppositions. Linguistic examples were drawn from the texts, analyzed semantically with attention to lexical, rhetorical, and pragmatic contexts. The process involved identifying linguistic phenomena, categorizing them quantitatively and qualitatively, and conducting statistical analysis to map the frequency of each opposition type. A graphical chart illustrates the percentage distribution of oppositions. Textual analysis tools ensured precise classification, focusing on the stylistic and semantic roles of oppositions in enhancing meaning and emphasizing ideological and ethical values. This approach elucidates the deep structure and communicative mechanisms of Imam Hassan’s discourse, highlighting how oppositions were strategically used to address socio-political challenges and reinforce doctrinal messages in a historically turbulent period.
 

Research Findings

 The analysis of 32 sermons by Imam Hassan (AS) revealed significant diversity in semantic opposition patterns. A total of 220 opposing word pairs were identified across the 32 sermons. Statistical analysis showed that complementary oppositions were the most frequent at %28.18, followed by gradable oppositions at %21.36, implied oppositions at %20.45, lexical oppositions at %14.54, directional oppositions at %10, and binary oppositions at %5.45. Complementary oppositions were the most frequent, as in “The sun breathes life into it, and the moon colors it,” reflecting natural complementarity. Binary oppositions, such as “Arab and non-Arab,” were the least common, indicating social reflexivity. Gradable oppositions, like “Praise be to God, who has no known beginning or finite end,” showcased temporal flexibility. Directional oppositions, such as “the East and the West,” carried symbolic universality. Lexical oppositions, as in “he who knows me and he who does not,” highlighted knowledge versus ignorance. Implied oppositions, like “destroy and revive,” conveyed deep value-based contrasts. Statistical analysis, supported by a graphical chart, confirmed the prevalence of complementary oppositions, underscoring their role in structuring meaning. These oppositions enhanced rhetorical rhythm and created vivid mental imagery, demonstrating Imam Hassan’s linguistic mastery in crafting impactful discourse that addressed doctrinal, ethical, and social dimensions within his sermons.
 

Discussion of Results & Conclusion

The findings illustrate that semantic oppositions in Imam Hassan’s sermons are not merely stylistic but serve as strategic tools to convey profound religious, ethical, and social messages. These oppositions performed multiple functions: cognitive (clarifying religious doctrines), educational (reinforcing moral values such as patience and justice), and socio-political (criticizing deviations like the Umayyads' corruption and revealing the contrast between truth and falsehood.The predominance of complementary oppositions highlights their effectiveness in creating clear, impactful contrasts, while the rarity of binary oppositions suggests a nuanced rhetorical approach. Shaped by the socio-political tensions of Imam Hassan’s era, particularly his opposition to the Umayyads, these oppositions articulated ideological and moral critiques, as seen in contrasts like “knowledge vs. ignorance” and “destroy vs. revive.” The statistical prevalence of complementary oppositions reinforces their role in ensuring textual coherence and rhetorical harmony. This study bridges a research gap by applying a modern semantic framework to Imam Hassan’s discourse, revealing its structural and communicative depth. The oppositions facilitated the transmission of doctrinal truths and ethical values, addressing societal challenges with linguistic precision. Ultimately, the analysis underscores Imam Hassan’s rhetorical brilliance, demonstrating how semantic oppositions were instrumental in shaping a discourse that resonated with his audience and reinforced his leadership in a divisive historical context.

Abstract Fairclough’s approach represents a critical methodology that emphasizes understanding poetic texts through the analysis of their social, cultural, and linguistic dimensions. This approach views discourse as a vehicle for conveying ideas and values, placing particular emphasis on the historical, social, and cultural contexts in which texts are produced. In the case of Ibrahim Naji’s poetry, Fairclough’s framework examines how the poet employs language and rhetorical strategies to construct and intensify meaning.
The present study aims to explore discursive transformations in Ibrahim Naji’s poetry through Norman Fairclough’s model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), demonstrating how the linguistic structure of poetic texts reflects and responds to the social and cultural transformations experienced by Egyptian society during the first half of the twentieth century. The analysis is based on Fairclough’s three-dimensional model, which investigates discourse at three interconnected levels: (1) the textual level (vocabulary, syntactic structures, and rhetorical imagery), (2) the discursive practice level (processes of text production and reception, and intertextual relations), and (3) the broader social practice level (political, cultural, and ideological developments in Egyptian society).
The findings indicate that Naji’s language functions not merely as a vehicle for emotional expression, but also as a means of shaping individual awareness and articulating resistance to prevailing social conditions. Recurrent imagery of escape, death, and symbolic nostalgia reflects collective experiences of failure and the reconfiguration of both personal and social identity. Accordingly, the study demonstrates that Ibrahim Naji’s poetry constitutes a complex performative act in which aesthetic concerns intersect with social and political dimensions, positioning his work as a compelling example for analyzing the dynamic interplay between language and power in literary discourse.
 
 
 Keywords: Discursive transformations; Ibrahim Naji’s poetry; Fairclough’s approach
 
Extended Summary
1.Introduction
 The study of discursive transformations in the poetry of Ibrahim Naji presents a significant critical avenue for understanding the evolution of his poetic experience and its interaction with the social and political contexts of his time. Naji is widely regarded as one of the leading figures in modern Arabic poetry, who successfully reflected—through poetic discourse—the major transformations witnessed by Arab society. He employed language not merely as a communicative tool but as an effective instrument for shaping awareness, influencing audiences, and producing forms of ideological hegemony.
Within this analytical framework, Fairclough’s approach to discourse analysis provides a suitable methodological foundation. This contemporary critical model seeks to uncover the relationship between language and society by revealing the ideologies, power relations, and social structures embedded within texts. It operates across multiple levels of analysis—textual, discursive, and social—to explain how discourse functions in producing power, shaping collective consciousness, and responding to the social and political forces that influence its formation and development.
Through this lens, Ibrahim Naji’s poetry can be examined not only for its aesthetic value but also for the ways in which language is mobilized to achieve social and political purposes. This study aims to demonstrate that Naji’s poetry constitutes a rich social and cultural discourse in which language, meaning, and power interact dynamically, with discursive transformations evident at both thematic and formal levels.
 

Materials and Methods

This research adopts a critical analytical approach grounded in Fairclough’s model of Critical Discourse Analysis. The analysis focuses on poetic texts by examining their linguistic structure, layers of meaning, and embedded ideologies, alongside the social and political contexts that produced the discourse. The objective is to understand how poetry functions as a medium of influence, persuasion, and social transformation.
 

Research Findings

The findings indicate that Ibrahim Naji’s poetry transcends mere emotional expression and operates as a complex discursive practice through which language is employed to shape both individual and collective consciousness within specific historical and social frameworks. The analysis reveals clear discursive transformations at thematic and structural levels, reflecting the social and cultural changes experienced by Egyptian society during the first half of the twentieth century.
Naji’s frequent use of symbolic imagery associated with escape, death, nostalgia, despair, and healing conveys collective experiences of loss, identity transformation, and existential anxiety. At the textual and discursive levels, rhetorical imagery, repetition, and emotionally charged language reinforce ideological meanings related to love, loyalty, moral commitment, resistance, and hope. Overall, the findings demonstrate that Naji’s poetry represents a convergence of aesthetic, social, and ideological dimensions, highlighting the dynamic relationship between language and power and affirming poetry’s role in shaping collective awareness.
 

Discussion of Results and Conclusion

In conclusion, the analysis of Ibrahim Naji’s poetry through Fairclough’s approach reveals that the poet skillfully employed language to articulate human values—particularly love, loyalty, and moral commitment—while simultaneously contributing to the formation of social consciousness. Discourse analysis demonstrates how poetry can function as an effective tool for disseminating values and influencing audiences through rhetorical imagery and linguistic strategies that enhance the persuasive power of the poetic message.
Accordingly, Ibrahim Naji’s poetry should be understood not merely as an artistic expression of emotion but as a discursive practice that reproduces and transmits social and ideological values. This underscores the importance of studying poetic discourse as a means of understanding its role in shaping collective consciousness and promoting human and ethical values within society.

Abstract Poets in general—and committed poets in particular—strive to shape their poetic expressions into a cohesive and interconnected creative whole, aiming both to persuade and to evoke aesthetic pleasure. The poet Abu al-Abbas succeeded in composing numerous poems within his Diwan that embody his highest ideals and objectives, using poetry as a powerful medium to advocate for his cause. His work has a philosophical dimension, engaging with the philosophy of waiting, which reflects his religious belief in the anticipation of Imam Mahdi. This philosophy and belief reach their peak in expressions that demonstrate the extent of his commitment to this cause. Within a rhetorical framework, he employs a range of poetic images that leave a distinctive mark on the realm of poetry and reveal his talent in strikingly beautiful forms.
Mahmoud Munaf is a contemporary poet whose committed poetry is characterized by both modern style and language, infused with social and religious themes. In his poetry of anticipation—particularly in expressing the rights of the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s family)—he creates new imagery and introduces fresh stylistic and literary techniques, including ambiguity, paradox, allegory, and symbolism.
The significance of this research lies in its clear portrayal of the modern techniques employed by this particular Iraqi poet within Arabic poetry. The study adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology to achieve its objectives, focusing on the theme of Imam al-Mahdi and the poet’s expressive style to illuminate its characteristic features. It also examines poetic representations of praise and love for the awaited Imam through the lens of anticipation literature, thereby revealing the aesthetics of the poetic text and the extent of the poet’s adherence to the doctrine of anticipation.
 
 Keywords: Committed Literature, Artistic Imagery, Deviation, Intertextuality, The Awaited Imam, Mahmoud Munaf.
 
Extended Summary
1.Introduction
 Writers and poets have traditionally employed standard themes and poetic styles in their work, such as description, praise, love poetry, and satire. However, some have ventured into modern themes, innovating in both poetic style and purpose. Political, social, religious, and ideological poetry are among the most significant of these modern developments, falling under the broader category of committed literature.
Modern poets have composed extensive works of committed poetry, reflecting their political and ideological affiliations. Many of these writers endured persecution and threats yet remained steadfast in their beliefs and principles. Among those who followed this path was the Iraqi poet Abu al-Abbas, who dedicated much of his literary attention—especially his poetry—to his Shi‘a faith, the guardianship of the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s family), their usurped rights, and the tragedy of Imam Hussein and Karbala. The notion of the awaited Imam, his call for reappearance, and the eradication of injustice held a central place in Abu al-Abbas’s corpus of literature and poetry.
 

Materials and Methods

Using a descriptive-analytical approach and drawing upon evidence from both research and library sources, it is evident that the poet Mahmoud Munaf employed a wide range of modern rhetorical mechanisms and poetic representations to express his unwavering loyalty to his beliefs through refined contemporary poetic language.
He achieved this through praise and elegy, invoking the deceased or the exalted, depicting lived realities, and expressing the believers’ yearning to witness the awaited one. The poet also made notable use of modern techniques such as irony and semantic as well as linguistic displacement. Munaf’s strong inclination toward metaphorical imagery, displacement, and religious intertextuality is clearly apparent—more so than his use of other poetic devices. Themes of anticipation, loyalty, devotion to the Ahl al-Bayt, and steadfastness in this path recur throughout Munaf’s poetry.
 

Research Findings

We observed that Abu al-Abbas integrated renewed perspectives into his poetry, addressing both traditional and modern purposes, and succeeded in reconciling the stylistic differences between them. His texts exhibit openness to new readings, made possible by his artistic sensibility. His employment of creative mechanisms and modern techniques led him to craft a distinctive, intense, and precise poetic image.
His poetic representations often appear through similes and metaphors imbued with displacement, which greatly contribute to crystallizing the sense of anticipation experienced by the audience. The cohesive textual interconnection that arises in the form of elegant intertextuality enables the poet to anchor the idea of waiting and the principle of Mahdism more firmly in the audience’s collective memory. His intertextual arguments in this regard are both persuasive and well-founded, establishing conviction in the expectant vision that he presents with clarity and distinction.
 

Discussion of Results and Conclusion

Abu al-Abbas integrated innovative techniques into his poetry with remarkable intelligence. His works display the use of deviation in its renewed semantic forms—semantic, structural, and rhythmic. Through abundant religious intertextuality, he expressed his cultural references, drawing from the Qur’an, religious narratives, and collective beliefs that reinforce the ideas of commitment and waiting.

Abstract The issue of migration, particularly the transnational identity of migrants, holds significant importance in postcolonial studies. A migrant’s departure from their homeland and immersion in the center of an alien culture lead to the formation of a “composite” identity that challenges the boundaries between self and other, as well as other binary oppositions. The novel Velvet (Makhmal) by the Palestinian writer Huzama Habayeb focuses on the human and emotional dimensions of the lives of Palestinians in the Baqa'a Refugee Camp in Jordan. Through its portrayal of life within the refugee camp, the novel explores, both directly and indirectly, the profound and enduring repercussions of colonialism on the social, psychological, and cultural structures of individuals.
This study employs a descriptive-analytical method grounded in postcolonial criticism and draws upon Homi Bhabha’s concepts of “Hybrid Identity,” “Mimicry,” and the “Third Space” to analyze the representations of women and Palestinian identity in the novel Velvet within colonial and postcolonial contexts. The study focuses on narrative techniques and character construction as tools for revealing the forms of resistance articulated by the text against dominant discourses.
The findings demonstrate that the novel not only destabilizes these discourses but also grants the Palestinian experience new dimensions that transcend conventional frameworks and redefine the relationship between self and other. The novel illustrates that resistance in the postcolonial context is manifested not solely through direct confrontation, but through the capacity for re-representation, re-negotiation, and re-writing within the structures of dominant discourse. Furthermore, through the lens of Homi Bhabha’s theory—particularly the concepts of “Third Space,” “Hybridity,” and “Mimicry”—the novel avoids reproducing the image of the Palestinian refugee as a passive victim. Instead, it presents the refugee as an active agent who engages in symbolic and moral resistance through a continuous process of negotiation with both self and other. Ultimately, the novel opens new horizons for understanding Palestinian identity as an ongoing project of negotiation, resistance, and re-creation.
Keywords: Postcolonial Criticism; Homi Bhabha; Third Space; Hybrid Identity; Velvet (Makhmal).

Introduction
Postcolonial criticism, as one of the major approaches within cultural studies, emerged as a pioneering intellectual framework through the works of influential thinkers such as Edward Said in the 1970s. Within this framework, critics examine and analyze the differences and confrontations between cultures, nations, and civilizations as manifested through categories such as race, color, class, gender, and nationality. Identity crises resulting from migration and displacement constitute one of the central concerns of postcolonial criticism, particularly in contexts characterized by an ongoing conflict between the culture of origin and the culture of exile.
The novel Mokhmal by Huzama Habayeb presents a compelling narrative of a woman’s resistance to violence, forced marriage, and social restrictions, while simultaneously portraying her search for love, beauty, and identity within a life marked by suffering and oppression. The novel stands not merely as an intense literary work, but as a space for the production of new meanings and identities, as well as for the formation of modes of resistance that transcend conventional frameworks of culture and identity.

Theoretical Framework
Postcolonial criticism has become an essential analytical framework for the study of literary works that examine cultural interactions, power relations, and the enduring impact of colonialism. This approach seeks to deconstruct dominant discourses within texts and recover the voices of marginalized groups, while also highlighting the mechanisms through which identity and memory are constructed in the postcolonial era. Owing to its broad narrative capacity, the novel provides an ideal medium for exploring these complex issues.
The Third Space and Hybrid Identity
The concept of the “Third Space” allows cultural meanings to remain dynamic and open to reinterpretation. The novel Mokhmal portrays life in a deteriorating refugee camp and explores the struggles and suffering of its inhabitants. Within the narrative, the camp is transformed into a “Third Space” in which hybrid identities are formed under conditions of poverty, misery, and human suffering.
Cultural hybridity, as theorized by Homi K. Bhabha, refers to the intersection of identities and cultures within the “Third Space,” generating flexible and resistant identities. In Mokhmal, Al-Sit Qamar’s sewing workshop provides Hawa with skills, dignity, and exposure to external fashions, enabling her to connect her economic identity with broader cultural influences. Hawa’s ability to create modern, Western-inspired clothing from simple fabrics exemplifies cultural hybridity by producing a unique blend of camp culture and external cultural influences. The workshop becomes a space in which poverty, production, and aesthetics converge, allowing Hawa to develop a practical hybrid identity that supports her survival within the novel’s “Third Space.”
Psychological Hybridity and Mimicry
Psychological hybridity refers to a complex internal condition in which the components of an individual’s identity intersect or fragment, producing a form of double consciousness. This concept occupies a central position in postcolonial theory, particularly in studies of identity formation among individuals living between conflicting cultures.
Mimicry, as analyzed by Homi K. Bhabha, functions as an active strategy within colonial discourse through the production of a modified and recognizable “other.” Such mimicry simultaneously creates similarity and difference, thereby destabilizing and threatening colonial authority.
The Construction of the Other
The construction of the “other” constitutes a rhetorical and political strategy through which a group is defined as fundamentally different from the dominant group. This process serves to legitimize domination and justify marginalization.

Novel Analysis
In Mokhmal, the author reconstructs the relationship between self and other by foregrounding feminine identity within the context of a Palestinian refugee camp. The protagonist, Hawa, defines her identity through her interactions with the camp’s inhabitants, particularly the women of her generation. The text examines the effects of poverty and disease on life within the camp, while also exploring the influence of both internal and external forms of “otherness” on Hawa’s identity formation.

Conclusion
Through the theoretical lens of Homi K. Bhabha, the novel Mokhmal portrays Palestinian refugees not as passive victims, but as active agents of resistance. The camp emerges as a “Third Space” in which new meanings and identities are produced through cultural interaction and alienation.
The novel challenges traditional discourses by introducing new dimensions to the Palestinian experience. It shifts the focus from revolutionary and masculine narratives toward everyday feminine perspectives, presenting the camp as a site of creativity and resistance.
At the same time, the novel exposes forms of internal oppression, including patriarchal violence and poverty, which threaten feminine identity. Hybrid identity consequently plays a crucial role in the creation of a third psychological space that enables the reconstruction of the self.
Ultimately, the novel redefines the image of the refugee by portraying a complex human being who continuously reconstructs identity through culture, love, poverty, and violence. In doing so, the work enriches Arab postcolonial discourse and offers a new understanding of Palestinian identity as an ongoing project of negotiation, resistance, and re-creation.

Abstract Sociological criticism examines the relationship between the structure and content of a literary work and its social and historical contexts. Its aim is to uncover hidden layers of meaning, explore the social and historical forces that shaped the work, and analyze its impact on society. Among the various approaches within sociological criticism is Kemper’s theory of power analysis. This theory focuses on structural factors, including individuals’ social positions in relation to others and their emotional reactions to social situations as represented in literary works.
Drawing on Kemper’s theory of power, the present study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to examine Nicola Haddad’s novel A State of Ladies in a Kingdom of Women. The study seeks to explore the exercise of power in the novel—whether manifested as formal and legal authority or as subtle, emotional influence—and to analyze how such forms of power bring about fundamental changes in social roles and gender relations within the narrative.
The findings indicate that power in the novel is exercised through mechanisms of control and fear, leading individuals to refrain from expressing political, critical, and social opinions due to fear of governmental and societal repercussions. The novel suggests that power, regardless of gender, requires interaction, participation, transparency, and flexibility. An excessive emphasis on the dominance of one gender without consideration of human emotions and needs is portrayed as unacceptable. Likewise, the repression of emotions—such as love—leads to the gradual erosion of political and social cohesion. Ultimately, the novel offers a deeper understanding of the dynamics of power in real societies.
Keywords: Sociological analysis; Kemper’s theory of power; Nicola Haddad; A State of Ladies in a Kingdom of Women
 
Extended Summary
Introduction
One of the central theories in the sociology of emotions is Kemper’s status-power theory, which examines social relations, social status, and their significance in shaping emotional reactions in different situations. Literary works—particularly novels—provide suitable material for representing and analyzing the principles of this theory.
In this context, Nicola Haddad’s novel A State of Ladies in a Kingdom of Women, written by a prominent figure of the Lebanese literary movement and the broader Arab cultural renaissance, offers an appropriate case for analysis. Since power constitutes the central theme of the novel, examining it through the lens of Kemper’s theory allows for an exploration of the multiple layers of power embedded in the narrative.
The novel presents a form of utopian—or rather critical fictional—city in which women govern a society entirely separate from men. In this imagined world, women believe that relationships with men lead to social weakness and regression. As one of the early examples of the feminist social novel in Arabic literature, the work provides fertile ground for sociological interpretation. Therefore, linking Kemper’s theory of power with the novel’s content is not only appropriate but also an effective method for analyzing the structure of power in this fictional female-centered society.
The significance of this research is evident from several perspectives. First, analyzing a relatively modern novel allows for the discovery of new dimensions within contemporary Arabic literature. Second, focusing on the representation of women’s roles and gender relations in a fictional society contributes to a deeper understanding of feminist structures and their reflection in Arabic literary narratives. Finally, integrating Kemper’s theory of power into literary analysis enriches sociological approaches to literature.
This study seeks to answer the following questions:

How are the components of Kemper’s theory of power represented in the novel?
How does the exercise of power in the novel lead to transformations in social and human structures?
Why does the redistribution of power in the narrative ultimately result in social crisis?

 
Materials and Methods
This research adopts a descriptive-analytical method grounded in Kemper’s theory of power. It examines the element of power in A State of Ladies in a Kingdom of Women through close textual analysis and the identification of representative examples from the novel. By analyzing key concepts derived from Kemper’s theory and evaluating the manifestation of power within the narrative, the study seeks to provide clear answers to the research questions.
 
Research Findings
Nicola Haddad’s A State of Ladies in a Kingdom of Women, in contrast to traditional patriarchal systems of power, conveys the message that power—regardless of gender—requires balance, transparency, and flexibility. Any form of excess or repression, even when justified by intentions of liberation, may lead to crisis at both individual and collective levels. These findings not only reflect a sociological reading of the novel but also contribute to a broader understanding of power dynamics in real societies.
 
Discussion of Results
Power in the novel operates in a complex and multilayered manner: from the queen’s formal and legal authority to her subtle and hidden emotional influence. These diverse forms of power reshape the social structure, placing women in positions of governmental, military, economic, and cultural responsibility. Women not only govern themselves but also control the instruments of authority, decision-making, and social supervision.
This transformation in power relations reflects an attempt to redefine gender identity and social status. However, the queen’s secrecy regarding her emotional attachment to Afrodis reveals a persistent gap between institutional power and human need. In practice, the extreme exercise of power does not preserve social order; rather, it paves the way for the gradual disintegration of social cohesion.
The sudden transfer of power from men to women overturns the traditional structure. Yet instead of establishing justice and balance, it creates a new repressive regime in which only the dominant gender has changed, while the underlying logic of domination remains intact. Although this shift appears to promote women’s liberation, it ultimately reproduces another form of ideological rigidity.
From the perspective of Kemper’s theory, this concentration of power generates emotional tension. Laws prohibiting love, human desire, and relationships with men intensify psychological conflict among the characters. The queen herself becomes entangled in this contradiction, forced to conceal her emotions—an indication of the internal crisis within the structure of power. A pervasive sense of psychological insecurity and fear of political collapse dominates the society.
In this novel, power is exercised primarily through coercion and enforcement. As a result, emotional bonds between rulers and society are severed, and an atmosphere of fear and punishment prevails. Consequently, the new structure of power, despite its emancipatory claims, ultimately faces a macro-level crisis rooted in its own principles.

Abstract This study is grounded in the structural-functionalist theory of the anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski, which posits that every element within a culture performs a vital function that ensures the cohesion and continuity of society, and that social institutions emerge and are reproduced to meet the fundamental needs of individuals within an integrated cultural context. Within this theoretical framework, the study analyzes the novel Farho’s Notebooks by the Omani writer Laila Abdullah as a narrative text that engages with cultural structures and reshapes them through a confessional, polyphonic narrative reflecting the realities of African refugees and their complex experiences of migration and belonging.
The research problem centers on how cultural contexts are employed in the novel as structural mechanisms that perform social and cognitive functions and contribute to shaping both the individual and collective identities of the characters, particularly that of Farho. The study aims to highlight the role of cultural contexts in constructing meaning within the narrative and to demonstrate how these contexts frame human experience within an integrated social system that extends beyond narrative representation to the production of cultural knowledge about the Other, the marginalized, and the displaced.
The study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach based on the core concepts of structural-functionalist theory, including cultural function, identity, and social integration, in order to examine how narrative elements interact with cultural structures and to analyze the dynamics between the individual and society within the text. The findings reveal that the novel does not merely recount the suffering of refugees; rather, it employs cultural contexts as interpretive frameworks for understanding reality. The analysis uncovers significant transformations. For example, motherhood is transformed into a functional force essential for survival, thereby underscoring the role of culture in shaping character and reinforcing the explanatory function of the text. Ultimately, the findings emphasize literature's capacity to interrogate social structures from a critical anthropological perspective.
Keywords: Functionalist Theory; Malinowski; Cultural Contexts; Farho’s Notebooks; Laila Abdullah.  
 
Extended Summary
1.Introduction
Laila Abdullah’s novel Farho’s Notebooks presents a richly layered anthropological landscape in which biological needs, cultural responses, and social institutions intersect within the precarious reality of displacement. In contexts characterized by migration, poverty, and institutional fragility, the functions of cultural systems become especially visible, making the novel a fertile site for the application of Bronisław Malinowski’s functionalist theory. Malinowski argues that every cultural practice, institution, and symbolic act emerges as a response to fundamental biological needs, including metabolism, reproduction, rest, safety, movement, growth, and health. These needs, however, are never fulfilled in isolation; rather, they are culturally mediated through organized social structures such as the family, work, education, and the community.
This study argues that the narrative does not depict these needs as being adequately fulfilled. Instead, it reveals a persistent gap between biological necessity and institutional functionality—a gap intensified by the lived experiences of refugees, whose daily survival is shaped by scarcity, marginalization, and structural neglect.
Through its portrayal of makeshift shelters, exhausting labor, fragile educational systems, and bodies continually threatened by illness and fatigue, the novel illustrates how cultural institutions—although intended to regulate and satisfy human needs—often fail under the pressures of displacement. These failures create conditions in which the characters resort to compensatory strategies, such as writing, emotional solidarity, and personal vigilance, in an effort to restore a sense of balance. Accordingly, this study approaches Farho’s Notebooks not merely as a narrative of suffering but as an ethnographic text that captures the tension between bodily vulnerability and cultural resilience. By applying Malinowski’s functionalist perspective, the study seeks to uncover the underlying cultural logics that structure the characters’ lived experiences and to demonstrate how the novel reconstructs human agency within a landscape marked by functional disruption.
 
2.Materials and Methods
This study employs a qualitative analytical approach grounded in Bronisław Malinowski’s functionalist theory to examine the cultural contexts represented in Laila Abdullah’s Farho’s Notebooks. The research primarily relies on close textual analysis and thematic coding, focusing on how biological needs—including metabolism, reproduction, rest, safety, movement, growth, and health—are articulated within the narrative and how cultural institutions attempt, fail, or partially succeed in responding to them. The novel is treated simultaneously as both a literary and an anthropological text, thereby enabling a dual-layered analysis of narrative form and cultural function.
The methodological framework consists of three interconnected procedures. First, key narrative scenes were identified and classified according to the biological needs outlined by Malinowski. This classification enabled a systematic examination of how each need is represented and contextualized within the refugee experience. Second, cultural responses—including work routines, educational practices, family roles, community norms, and symbolic acts—were analyzed to determine the extent to which they fulfill, modify, or hinder the satisfaction of these needs. Third, instances of functional disruption were examined to reveal how structural deficiencies within institutions—such as unstable housing, exploitative labor conditions, inadequate schooling, and limited access to healthcare—shape the lived experiences of the characters.
The study adopts an interpretive approach that emphasizes the dialectical relationship between the body and culture. The data were derived exclusively from the narrative text itself and supported by relevant theoretical sources on functionalism. No interviews or fieldwork were conducted; rather, the novel is treated as a self-contained cultural document. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of how Abdullah reconstructs the sociocultural mechanisms of refugee life and exposes the tension between biological necessity and institutional efficacy. The reliability of the analysis is ensured through repeated cross-referencing of textual evidence with the principles of functionalism, thereby providing a coherent, systematic, and theoretically grounded interpretation.
 
3.Research Findings
The analysis reveals that Farho’s Notebooks presents a multifaceted portrayal of biological needs and their cultural regulation, highlighting the profound functional disruptions that characterize refugee life. The findings indicate that the need for metabolism is primarily fulfilled through labor, particularly the strenuous and poorly compensated domestic work performed by mothers. Although physically exhausting, this labor represents a culturally structured strategy for securing food and shelter. Nevertheless, the instability of employment transforms this fundamental biological necessity into a source of existential anxiety.
Reproduction emerges in the narrative not merely as a biological process but as an institutionally mediated challenge in which fragmented family structures and economic constraints impede the establishment of stable parental and social roles.
Rest is portrayed as an elusive human need, frequently undermined by overcrowded shelters, hazardous living conditions, and persistent psychological stress. Safety, a fundamental need in Malinowski’s theoretical framework, is likewise consistently compromised. Broken glass, poorly lit pathways, and fragile community boundaries heighten the characters’ vulnerability and transform their environment into a space of constant threat.
Movement is represented as both a biological necessity and an institutional function expressed through labor, education, and everyday routines. The father's long hours operating sewing machines and the children's disciplined journeys to school illustrate how bodily movement becomes embedded within economic and educational systems. Growth is reflected in the narrator’s premature psychological maturation, as the narrator "feels older than his age," illustrating how trauma accelerates developmental processes when institutional support collapses.
Finally, health is represented through recurring conditions such as lice infestations and fevers, exposing the shortcomings of social hygiene and healthcare systems. Cultural responses to illness frequently take the form of moral judgment rather than appropriate care, thereby revealing the symbolic dimensions that shape perceptions of the body.
Overall, the novel demonstrates that institutional structures—including the family, school, the workplace, and the community—often fail to satisfy fundamental human needs, creating an enduring tension between biological necessities and processes of cultural adaptation.
 
 
4.Discussion of Results and Conclusion
The study concludes that Farho’s Notebooks offers a compelling functionalist interpretation of refugee life, in which unmet biological needs expose systemic dysfunctions within cultural institutions. In accordance with Bronisław Malinowski’s theory, fundamental human needs are expected to be fulfilled through organized social structures. However, the novel demonstrates that, under conditions of displacement, these structures become unstable, fragmented, or entirely dysfunctional.
The family, traditionally responsible for providing care, support, and the transmission of cultural values, is burdened by economic precarity, compelling mothers to engage in exhausting labor while children assume responsibilities far beyond their years. The workplace, which is intended to provide economic security, instead becomes a site of exhaustion and vulnerability, incapable of ensuring a stable livelihood. Likewise, the educational system, expected to facilitate socialization and personal development, suffers from poor quality, high failure rates, and administrative neglect, revealing a profound institutional breakdown.
Despite these structural deficiencies, the narrative underscores the resilience of cultural practices. Writing emerges as a symbolic institution that compensates for institutional failure, enabling the narrator to reconstruct identity and maintain psychological equilibrium. Acts of solidarity, such as visiting the sick and sharing responsibilities, illustrate the emergence of micro-level cultural responses that seek to fill the void left by dysfunctional institutions.
The discussion demonstrates that, within the context of displacement, culture functions simultaneously as both a source of suffering and a mechanism of survival. While institutional failures intensify human vulnerability, cultural creativity and interpersonal solidarity provide alternative means of addressing unmet needs. Ultimately, the novel illustrates that survival in precarious environments is not merely a biological struggle but also a cultural one. Individuals continuously reinterpret, negotiate, and reconstruct their needs within unstable social structures. In doing so, the narrative reconfigures functionalist theory by demonstrating that when major institutions fail, cultural life does not collapse; rather, it adapts and transforms, generating new forms of agency, resilience, and symbolic resistance.

Abstract With the emergence of feminist movements, modern literary criticism has witnessed the development of an independent branch known as feminist criticism, which emphasizes the distinction between feminine and masculine language. Among the various approaches within feminist criticism, Elaine Showalter’s theory, through the framework of gynocriticism, examines women’s literary traditions, the stages of their development, and the four principal dimensions of feminine language: the biological, linguistic, cultural, and psychological.
Using a descriptive-analytical approach, the present study seeks to answer the question of the extent to which Zahra Abdullah’s novel At the Table of ISIS, written by the Syrian novelist, employs the dimensions of feminine language as conceptualized in Showalter’s theory, and to determine the stage of feminine writing to which the novel belongs.
The findings indicate that the novel exhibits feminine characteristics across all four dimensions. At the biological level, it emphasizes issues such as pregnancy, abortion, menstruation, virginity, and women’s anxious relationship with their own bodies. At the linguistic level, it is characterized by careful attention to detail, repetition, the extensive use of color imagery, feminine lexical choices (such as references to sanitary products), and short, concise sentences. At the cultural level, it portrays the beliefs, rituals (including prayers to Tawus Malak), and customs of Yazidi women. At the psychological level, it depicts anxiety, feelings of shame and regret, the search for refuge in memories of the beloved, and meticulous observation of the surrounding world.
Keywords: Feminine language; Elaine Showalter; At the Table of ISIS; Zahra Abdullah; ISIS; Yazidi women.
 
Extended Summary
 

Introduction

With the expansion of diverse intellectual movements, contemporary literary criticism has witnessed the emergence of a variety of critical approaches, among which feminist criticism has become one of the most influential. Following the rise of movements advocating women's rights, this critical tradition emphasized the autonomy of feminist criticism and its distinction from male-centered literary criticism. Among the leading theorists in this field, Elaine Showalter, through her theory of gynocriticism, developed one of the most coherent and comprehensive frameworks for the study of women's literature. According to this theory, rather than examining women in literature through a male perspective, scholars should focus on women's own literary traditions, the stages of their development, and the distinctive characteristics of their writing.
To distinguish feminine from masculine language, Showalter identifies four principal dimensions: the biological dimension, which relates to the female body and its physical characteristics; the linguistic dimension, which concerns vocabulary, syntax, and style; the cultural dimension, which encompasses women's customs, beliefs, and social roles; and the psychological dimension, which addresses feminine emotions, anxieties, and inner experiences.
The significance of the present study can be explained from two perspectives. First, examining women's literary works through a feminist framework contributes to the intellectual independence of feminist criticism. Second, the study of women's literature in Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Syria is particularly important because of the numerous social and political challenges faced by women. Zahra Abdullah's novel At the Table of ISIS, which portrays the atrocities committed by ISIS against Yazidi women, provides an appropriate context for such an analysis.
Accordingly, this study seeks to answer two principal research questions:

What feminine linguistic components are represented in the novel At the Table of ISIS?
To which stage of feminine writing does this novel belong according to Elaine Showalter's theory?


Research Methods and Objectives

The objectives of this study are twofold: (1) to identify and analyze the components of feminine language in At the Table of ISIS based on Elaine Showalter's theoretical framework; and (2) to determine the extent to which the novel demonstrates independence from the influence of male-authored literature and to identify the stage of feminine writing to which it belongs, namely the stage of imitation, the stage of protest, or the stage of self-awareness and independence.
The study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach. The data were collected and analyzed through qualitative content analysis of the novel in accordance with Showalter's four dimensions of feminine language.
The review of previous research consists of three major studies. The first examined ISIS's treatment of women from a sociological perspective. The second analyzed violence through the theoretical framework of Žižek. The third investigated characterization based on Foucault's approach. To date, no study has examined the feminine language of this novel through the lens of Showalter's theory. Consequently, the present research is considered innovative in terms of both its subject matter and its theoretical framework.
The study population consists of the complete text of the novel At the Table of ISIS (Dar Al-Adab Publishing, Beirut, 2017). The units of analysis include sentences, phrases, and paragraphs containing manifestations of feminine language.

Research Findings and Discussion

The findings of the study are presented across four dimensions.
3.1. Biological Dimension
The novel places considerable emphasis on women's biological experiences. Terms such as arham (wombs), hamel (pregnant), nazif (bleeding), adhra' (virgin), and ijhad (abortion) recur throughout the narrative. The protagonist, Yova, maintains an anxious and emotionally charged relationship with her own body, expressing this through statements such as, "I dare not touch my body" and "my oppressed corpse." Furthermore, the interrogation scene, in which young women are questioned about their most recent menstruation and sexual experience, demonstrates a particular emphasis on female biological experience. Although these issues are addressed with relative caution because of the cultural norms of Eastern societies, they clearly reflect the feminine dimension of the narrative.
3.2. Linguistic Dimension
The novel exhibits distinctive linguistic characteristics that differentiate it from works typically associated with male authorship. First, it demonstrates meticulous attention to detail in describing scenes, including the faces and clothing of ISIS members, gardens, and prison cells. Second, it makes extensive use of color imagery, particularly white, blue, black, and multicolored objects. Through the protagonist, the author explicitly declares: "I am a woman who loves colors; colors are life." Third, the narrative incorporates feminine lexical items, including shampoo, women's razors, sanitary pads, and colorful dresses. Fourth, it frequently repeats words such as battaniyah (blanket) and al-Intidhar (waiting). Finally, the prevalence of short sentences and frequent interrogative structures reflects the vulnerable social position of women.
 
 
3.3. Cultural Dimension
The novel effectively portrays the customs, beliefs, and cultural roles of Yazidi women. These include women's attachment to jewelry—such as gold, earrings, and necklaces—which ISIS confiscates; nostalgia for domestic activities such as preparing dinner and making coffee; praying to and placing their trust in Tawus Malak during times of crisis; and rejecting the label sabaya (captive women), which reflects ISIS's instrumental and patriarchal perception of women. The author also criticizes ISIS's practice of selecting attractive women as commodities while discarding the others.
3.4. Psychological Dimension
The novel vividly portrays the hidden psychological world of captive women. During moments of fear, Yova seeks refuge in memories of her beloved, Sirwan. Regret over missing opportunities to escape, feelings of shame and modesty associated with being naked before unfamiliar men, a profound sense of spiritual suffocation, careful observation of surrounding events, and the fear that the door might suddenly open while she is unclothed all constitute psychological indicators of feminine experience within the novel.

Abstract Power discourse is a fundamental instrument through which power reproduces representations and perceptions that diverge from those established in classical political thought. From Michel Foucault’s perspective, power is neither confined to an individual or a specific class nor a form of ownership that can be possessed or exercised from a particular center. Rather, it constitutes a network of intertwined relations embedded within the social fabric, operating through a range of mechanisms and everyday techniques that shape individuals and reorganize their behaviors and systems of representation. Najib Al-Kilani’s novel Giants of the North portrays the suffering and turmoil endured by Muslims in Nigeria during the 1960s and highlights the role of missionary campaigns and certain foreign interest groups in intensifying conflicts and fueling tensions among the country’s diverse ethnic groups. The novel also exposes the decentralized and diffuse nature of power, illustrating its manifestations across discourse, institutions, the body, the economy, and religion. Moreover, it underscores that any analysis of power within the text remains incomplete without a thorough understanding of the dynamics of resistance operating within these spheres of power. Consequently, the novel serves as a suitable model for a Foucauldian reading, illuminating the interplay between mechanisms of control and discipline and the various forms of resistance within the social and cultural context depicted in the text. This study, employing a descriptive–analytical method, examines the principal components of power discourse in the novel from Michel Foucault’s perspective. The findings indicate that power discourse in the novel is grounded in a network of social distinctions that confer legitimacy and mechanisms of control to specific groups, reproducing their privileges not through direct coercion but through symbols and cultural practices. Furthermore, the novel depicts the persistent presence of colonial power, operating through hidden mechanisms manifested in laws, discourses, and the economic system. It also demonstrates that power is distributed across diverse social relations, ranging from nightclubs to political conflicts.